Human Health and Diseases 12th Science Lesson Online Test

The World Health Organization [WHO] defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely absence of disease’. We can also say “HEALTH IS WEALTH”, when people are healthy they are more efficient at work. Health increases longevity of people and reduces infant and adult mortality. Personal hygiene, regular exercise and balanced diet are very important to maintain good health.

Disease can be defined as a disorder or malfunction of the mind or body. It involves morphological, physiological and psychological disturbances which may be due to environmental factors or pathogens or genetic anomalies or life style changes. Diseases can be broadly grouped into infectious and non-infectious types.

Diseases which are transmitted from one person to another are called infectious diseases or communicable diseases. Such disease causing organisms are called pathogens and are transmitted through air, water, food, physical contact and vectors.

In secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs, antigen is localized so that it can be effectively exposed to mature lymphocytes. The best examples are lymph nodes, appendix, Peyer’s patches of gastrointestinal tract, tonsils, adenoids, spleen, MALT (Mucosal-Associated Lymphoid Tissue), GALT (Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue), BALT (Bronchial/Tracheal-Associated Lymphoid Tissue).

Spleen is a secondary lymphoid organ located in the upper part of the abdominal cavity close to the diaphragm. Spleen contains B and T cells. It brings humoral and cell mediated immunity

The disease causing pathogen may be virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoan parasites, helminthic parasites, etc., Infectious diseases are common and everyone suffers from such diseases at some time or the other. Most of the bacterial diseases are curable but all viral diseases are not. Some infectious disease like AIDS may be fatal.

Non-infectious diseases are not transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person. In origin they may be genetic (cystic fibrosis), nutritional (vitamin deficiency diseases) and degenerative (arthritis, heart attack, stroke).

Though the number of bacterial species is very high, only a few bacteria are associated with human diseases and are called pathogenic bacteria. Such pathogens may emit toxins and affects the body.

If an antibiotic is used too often to fight a specific bacterial infection, the bacteria may become resistant to the specific antibiotic. Hence the specific antibiotic can no longer be used to treat the bacterial infection. Some bacteria have developed resistance to many antibiotics. Therefore, infections caused by these bacteria are difficult to be cured.

Risk of bacterial resistance can be reduced by observing the following steps:
• Avoid using antibiotics to treat minor infections that can be taken care by our immune system.
• Do not use an antibiotic to treat viral infections such as common cold or flu.
• Always follow the prescription. Skipping doses or failing to complete the prescription may allow antibiotic resistance to develop

Common cold is caused by more than 150 different strains of Rhino viruses. More over their RNA genome keeps changing due to mutation. Hence it is very difficult to prepare a common vaccine for the disease.

Bacteria spread through air, water or by inhaling the droplets/aerosols or even by sharing utensils, dresses with an infected person. Typhoid fever can be confirmed by Widal test.

Viruses are the smallest intracellular obligate parasites, which multiply within living cells. Outside the living cells they cannot carry out the characteristics of a living organism.

Nipah virus is a zoonotic virus (transmitted from animals to humans) and also transmitted through contaminated food. In infected people, it causes a range of illness from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory illness and fatal encephalitis.

Outside the living cells they cannot carry out the characteristics of a living organism. Viruses invade living cells, forcing the cells to create new viruses. The new viruses break out of the cell, killing it and invade other cells in the body, causing diseases in human beings. Rhino viruses cause one of the most infectious human-ailment called the “Common cold”

Viral diseases are generally grouped into four types on the basis of the symptoms produced in the body organs.
• Pneumotropic diseases (respiratory tract infected by influenza)
• Dermotropic diseases (skin and subcutaneous tissues affected by chicken pox and measles)
• Viscerotropic diseases (blood and visceral organs affected by yellow fever and dengue fever)
• Neurotropic diseases (central nervous system affected by rabies and polio).

About 15 genera of protozoans live as parasites within the human body and cause diseases.

Swine flu was first recognised in the 1919 pandemic and still circulates as a seasonal flu virus. Swine flu is caused by the H1N1 virus strain. Symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, chills, weakness and body aches. Children, pregnant women and the elderly are at risk from severe infection.

Amoebiasis also called amoebic dysentery or amoebic colitis is caused by Entamoeba histolytica, which lives in the human large intestine and feeds on mucus and bacteria. Infective stage of this parasite is the trophozoite, which penetrates the walls of the host intestine (colon) and secretes histolytic enzymes causing ulceration, bleeding, abdominal pain and stools with excess mucus. Symptoms of amoebiasis can range from diarrhoea to dysentery with blood and mucus in the stool. House flies (Musca domestica) acts as a carrier for transmitting the parasite from contaminated faeces and water

African sleeping sickness is caused by Trypanosoma species. Trypanosoma is generally transmitted by the blood sucking Tsetse flies. Three species of Trypanosoma cause sleeping sickness in man.

1. T. gambiense is transmitted by Glossina palpalis (Tsetse fly) and causes Gambian or Central African sleeping sickness
2. T. rhodesiense is transmitted by Glossina morsitans causing Rhodesian or East African sleeping sickness.
3. T. cruzi is transmitted by a bug called Triatoma megista and causes Chagas disease or American trypanosomiasis.

Kala – azar or visceral leishmaniasis is caused by Leishmania donovani, which is transmitted by the vector Phlebotomus (sand fly). Infection may occur in the endothelial cells, bone marrow, liver, lymph glands and blood vessels of the spleen. Symptoms of Kala azar are weight loss, anaemia, fever, enlargement of spleen and liver

Malaria is caused by different types of Plasmodium species such as P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae and P. falciparum. Plasmodium lives in the RBC of human in its mature condition it is called as trophozoite. It is transmitted from one person to another by the bite of the infected female Anopheles mosquito.

Plasmodium vivax is a digenic parasite, involving two hosts, man as the secondary host and female Anopheles mosquito as the primary host. The life cycle of Plasmodium involves three phases namely schizogony, gamogony and sporogony.

The parasite first enters the human blood stream through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. As it feeds, the mosquito injects the saliva containing the sporozoites. The sporozoite within the blood stream immediately enters the hepatic cells of the liver. Further in the liver they undergo multiple asexual fission (schizogony) and produce merozoites. After being released from liver cells, the merozoites penetrate the RBC’s

The pathological changes caused by malaria, affects not only the erythrocytes but also the spleen and other visceral organs. Incubation period of malaria is about 12 days.

Which of the following are the early symptoms of malaria?
1) Headache
2) Nausea
3) Muscular pain

It is possible to break the transmission cycle by killing the insect vector. Mosquitoes lay their eggs in water. Larvae hatch and develop in water but breathe air by moving to the surface. Oil can be sprayed over the water surface, to make it impossible for mosquito larvae and pupae to breathe.

Ponds, drainage ditches and other permanent bodies of water can be stocked with fishes such as Gambusia which feed on mosquito larvae. Preparations containing Bacillus thuringiensis can be sprayed to kill the mosquito larvae since it is not toxic to other forms of life. The best protection against malaria is to avoid being bitten by mosquito. People are advised to use mosquito nets, wire gauging of windows and doors to prevent mosquito bites.

In the 1950’s the World Health Organisation (WHO) introduced the Malaria eradication programme. This programme was not successful due to the resistance of Plasmodium to the drugs used to treat it and resistance of mosquitoes to DDT and other insecticides.

Malaria vaccine is used to prevent malaria. The only approved vaccine as of 2015 is RTS,S (Mosquirix). It requires four injections and has relatively low efficacy (26–50%). Due to this low efficacy, WHO does not recommend the use of RTS,S vaccine in babies between 6 and 12 weeks of age.

Fungi was recognized as a causative agent of human diseases much earlier than bacteria. Dermatomycosis is a cutaneous infection caused by fungi belonging to the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum and Epidermophyton.

Ringworm is one of the most common fungal disease in humans. Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on the skin, nails and scalp are the main symptoms of the disease. Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow and makes them to thrive in skin folds such as those in the groin or between the toes.

Ringworms of the feet is known as Athlete’s foot caused by Tinea pedis. Ringworms are generally acquired from soil or by using clothes, towels and comb used by infected persons.

Helminthes are mostly endo-parasitic in the gut and blood of human beings and cause diseases called helminthiasis. The two most prevalent helminthic diseases are Ascariasis and Filariasis.

Ascaris is a monogenic parasite and exhibits sexual dimorphism. Ascariasis is a disease caused by the intestinal endoparasite Ascaris lumbricoides commonly called the round worms. It is transmitted through ingestion of embryonated eggs through contaminated food and water

Helminthes are mostly endo-parasitic in the gut and blood of human beings and causes diseases called helminthiasis. The two most prevalent helminthic diseases are Ascariasis and Filariasis.

Ascaris is a monogenic parasite and exhibits sexual dimorphism. Ascariasis is a disease caused by the intestinal endoparasite Ascaris lumbricoides commonly called the round worms. It is transmitted through ingestion of embryonated eggs through contaminated food and water. Children playing in contaminated soils are also prone to have a chance of transfer of eggs from hand to mouth.

Filariasis is caused by Wuchereria bancrofti, commonly called filarial worm. It is found in the lymph vessels and lymph nodes of man.

Hygiene is a set of practices performed to conserve good health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), hygiene refers to “conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases.” Personal hygiene refers to maintaining one’s body clean by bathing, washing hands, trimming fingernails, wearing clean clothes and also includes attention to keeping surfaces in the home and workplace, including toilets, bathroom facilities, clean and pathogen-free.

Our public places teem with infection, contamination and germs. It seems that every surface we touch and the air we breathe are with pollutants and microbes. It’s not just the public places that are unclean, but we might be amazed at the number of people who do not wash their hands before taking food, after visiting the restroom, or who sneeze without covering their faces. Many infectious diseases such as typhoid, amoebiasis and ascariasis are transmitted through contaminated food and water.

Advancement in science and technology provide effective controlling measures for many infectious and non-infectious diseases. The use of vaccines and adopted immunization programmes have helped to eradicate small pox in India. Moreover a large number of infectious diseases like polio, diphtheria, pneumonia and tetanus have been controlled by the use of vaccines and by creating awareness among the people.

Immunology is the study of immune system. This system protects an individual from various infective agents. It refers to all the mechanisms used by the body for protection from environmental agents that are foreign to the body.

When the immune system does not function efficiently in an individual, it leads to infection causing disease. The overall ability of body to fight against the disease causing pathogen is called immunity. It is also called disease resistance and the lack of immunity is known as susceptibility. Immunity is highly specific.

Almost all the macromolecules e.g. proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, etc., as long as they are foreign to recipient organism can induce immune response. Any substance capable of eliciting immune response is called an ANTIGEN

Innate immunity is the natural phenomenon of resistance to infection which an individual possesses right from the birth. The innate defense mechanisms are non-specific in the sense that they are effective against a wide range of potentially infectious agents. It is otherwise known as non-specific immunity or natural immunity.

The immunity that an individual acquires after birth is known as acquired immunity. It is the body’s resistance to a specific pathogen. The unique features of acquired immunity are antigenic specificity, diversity, recognition of self and non-self and immunological memory.

Acquired immunity has two components – cell mediated immunity (CMI) and antibody mediated immunity or humoral immunity. When pathogens are destroyed by cells without producing antibodies, then it is known as cell mediated immune response or cell mediated immunity. This is brought about by T cells, macrophages and natural killer cells.

When pathogens are destroyed by the production of antibodies, then it is known as antibody mediated or humoral immunity. This is brought about by B cells with the help of antigen presenting cells and T helper cells. Antibody production is the characteristic feature of vertebrates only.

The immune responses may be primary or secondary. The process of production of blood cells in the bone marrow is called haematopoiesis.

Immune system of an organism consists of several structurally and functionally different organs and tissues that are widely dispersed in the body. The organs involved in the origin, maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes are called lymphoid organs. Based on their functions, they are classified into primary or central lymphoid organs and secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs. The primary lymphoid organs provide appropriate environment for lymphocytic maturation. The secondary lymphoid organs trap antigens and make it available for mature lymphocytes, which can effectively fight against these antigens.

Bursa of Fabricius of birds, bone marrow and thymus gland of mammals constitute the primary lymphoid organs involved in the production and early selection of lymphocytes. These lymphocytes become dedicated to a particular antigenic specificity.

Only when the lymphocytes mature in the primary lymphoidal organs, they become immunocompetent cells. In mammals, B cell maturation occurs in the bone marrow and T cells maturation occurs in the thymus.

The thymus is a flat and bilobed organ located behind the sternun, above the heart. Each lobe of the thymus contains numerous lobules, separated from each other by connective tissue called septa.

One of thymus main secretions is the hormone thymosin. It stimulates the T cell to become mature and immunocompetent. By the early teens, the thymus begins to atrophy and is replaced by adipose tissue. Thus, thymus is most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods.

Bone marrow is a lymphoid tissue found within the spongy portion of the bone. Bone marrow contains stem cells known as haematopoietic cells. These cells have the potential to multiply through cell division and either remain as stem cells or differentiate and mature into different kinds of blood cells.

Explanation
Peyer’s patches are oval-shaped areas of thickened tissue that are embedded in the mucus-secreting lining of the small intestine of humans and other vertebrate animals. Peyer’s patches contain a variety of immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells.

The tonsils (palatine tonsils) are a pair of soft tissue masses located at the back of the throat (pharynx). The tonsils are part of the lymphatic system, which help to fight infections. They stop invading germs including bacteria and viruses.

The adenoids are glands located in the roof of the mouth, behind the soft palate where the nose connects to the throat. The adenoids produce antibodies that help to fight infections. Typically, the adenoids shrink during adolescence and may disappear by adulthood.

Lymph node is a small bean-shaped structure and is part of the body’s immune system. It is the first one to encounter the antigen that enters the tissue spaces. Lymph nodes filter and trap substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid.

Lymph is a clear, transparent, colourless, mobile and extracellular fluid connective tissue. As the lymph percolates through the lymph node, the particulate antigen brought in by the lymph will be trapped by the phagocytic cells, follicular and interdigitating dendritic cells

Lymph node has three zones. They are the cortex, paracortex and medulla. The outer most layer of the lymph node is called cortex, which consists of B-lymphocytes, macrophages, and follicular dendritic cells. The paracortex zone is beneath the cortex, which is richly populated by T lymphocytes and interdigitating dendritic cells. The inner most zone is called the medulla which is sparsely populated by lymphocytes, but many of them are plasma cells, which actively secrete antibody molecules.

The lymph leaving a node carries enriched antibodies secreted by the medullary plasma cells against the antigens that enter the lymph node. Sometimes visible swelling of lymph nodes occurs due to active immune response and increased concentration of lymphocytes.

The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) is a diffuse system of small concentrations of lymphoid tissue in the alimentary, respiratory and urino-genital tracts. MALT is populated by lymphocytes such as T and B cells, as well as plasma cells and macrophages, each of which is well situated to encounter antigens passing through the mucosal epithelium. It also possesses IgA antibodies.

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) is a component of the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) which works in the immune system to protect the body from invasion in the gut. Bronchus Associated Lymphoid Tissues (BALT) also a component of MALT is made of lymphoid tissue (tonsils, lymph nodes, lymph follicles) is found in the respiratory mucosae from the nasal cavities to the lungs.

All these cells are derived from pluripotent haematopoetic stem cells. Each stem cell has the capacity to produce RBC, WBC and platelets. The only cells capable of specifically recognising and producing an immune response are the lymphocytes. The other types of white blood cells play an important role in non-specific immune response, antigen presentation and cytokine production.

About 20-30% of the white blood cells are lymphocytes. They have a large nucleus filling most of the cell, surrounded by a little cytoplasm. The two main types of lymphocytes are B and T lymphocytes. Both these are produced in the bone marrow. B lymphocytes (B cells) stay in the bone marrow until they are mature. Then they circulate around the body. Some remain in the blood, while others accumulate in the lymph nodes and spleen. T lymphocytes leave the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland.

T lymphocytes leave the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. Once mature, T cells also accumulate in the same areas of the body as B cells. Lymphocytes have receptor proteins on their surface. When receptors on a B cell bind with an antigen, the B cell becomes activated and divides rapidly to produce plasma cells. The plasma cells produce antibodies. Some B cells do not produce antibodies but become memory cells. These cells are responsible for secondary immune response. T lymphocytes do not produce antibodies.

Dendritic cells are called so because its covered with long, thin membrane extensions that resemble dendrites of nerve cells. These cells present the antigen to T-helper cells. Four types of dendritic cells are known. They are langerhans, interstitial cells, myeloid and lymphoid cells.

The term antigen (Ag) is used in two senses, the first to describe a molecule which generates an immune response and the second, a molecule which reacts with antibodies. In general antigens are large, complex molecular substances that can induce a detectable immune response. Thus an antigen is a substance that is specific to an antibody or a T-cell receptor and is often used as a synonym for immunogen.

An immunogen is a substance capable of initiating an immune response. Haptens are substance that are non-immunogenic but can react with the products of a specific immune response. Substances that can enhance the immune response to an antigen are called adjuvants. Epitope is an antigenic determinant and is the active part of an antigen. A paratope is the antigen – binding site and is a part of an antibody which recognizes and binds to an antigen.

The antibodies are classified into five major categories, based on their physiological and biochemical properties. They are IgG (gamma), IgM (mu), IgA (alpha), IgD (delta) and IgE (epsilon).

In the 1950s, experiments by Porter and Edelman revealed the basic structure of the immunoglobulin. An antibody molecule is Y shaped structure that comprises of four polypeptide chains, two identical light chains (L) of molecular weight 25,000 Da (approximately 214 amino acids) and two identical heavy chains (H) of molecular weight 50,000 Da (approximately 450 amino acids).

The polypeptide chains are linked together by di-sulphide (S-S) bonds. One light chain is attached to each heavy chain and two heavy chains are attached to each other to form a Y shaped structure. Hence, an antibody is represented by H2 L2. The heavy chains have a flexible hinge region at their approximate middles.

The reaction between an antigen and antibody is the basis for humoral immunity or antibody mediated immunity. The reaction between antigen and antibody occurs in three stages. During the first stage, the reaction involves the formation of antigen – antibody complex. The next stage leads to visible events like precipitation, agglutination, etc., The final stage includes destruction of antigen or its neutralization.

The binding force between antigen and antibody is due to three factors. They are closeness between antigen and antibody, noncovalent bonds or intermolecular forces and affinity of antibody.

When antigen and antibody are closely fitted, the strength of binding is great. When they are apart binding strength is low. The bonds that hold the antigen to the antibody combining site are all non-covalent in nature. These include hydrogen bonds, electrostatic bonds, Van der Waals forces and hydrophobic bonds. Antibody affinity is the strength of the reaction between a single antigenic determinant and a single combining site on the antibody.

Opsonisation or enhanced attachment is the process by which a pathogen is marked of ingestion and destruction by a phagocyte. Opsonisation involves the binding of an opsonin i.e., antibody, to a receptor on the pathogen’s cell membrane.

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease and resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or attenuated or killed forms of the microbes, their toxins, or one of its surface proteins. Vaccines “teach” our body how to defend itself when viruses or bacteria, invade it. Vaccines deliver only very little amounts of inactivated or weakened viruses or bacteria, or parts of them.

Vaccine initiates the immunization process. The vaccines are classified as first, second and third generation vaccine

First generation vaccine is further subdivided into live attenuated vaccine, killed vaccine and toxoids (Fig. 8.9). Live attenuated vaccines use the weakened (attenuated), aged, less virulent form of the virus. E.g. Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine and the Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine, Killed (inactivated) vaccines are killed or inactivated by heat and other methods. E.g. Salk’s polio vaccine. Toxoid vaccines contain a toxin or chemical secreted by the bacteria or virus. They make us immune to the harmful effects of the infection, instead of to the infection itself. E.g. DPT vaccine (Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus).

Second generation vaccine contains the pure surface antigen of the pathogen. E.g. Hepatitis-B vaccine. Third generation vaccine contains the purest and the highest potency vaccines which are synthetic in generation. The latest revolution in vaccine is DNA vaccine or recombinant vaccine.

Vaccino therapy is the method of use of vaccine for treatment of disease. Dr. Edward Jenner prepared first vaccine for small pox in 1796.

Polio vaccine was developed by Dr. Jonas Salk (vaccine consists of inactivated microorganism) and Dr. Albert Sabin (live attenuated oral polio vaccine). Louis Pasteur (1885) discovered vaccine against rabies, anthrax and cholera. BCG vaccine was developed by Calmette and Guerin against tuberculosis in France in the year 1908.

“Vaccination is the process of administrating a vaccine into the body or the act of introducing a vaccine into the body to produce immunity to a specific disease.” Immunization is the process of the body building up immunity to a particular disease. Immunization describes the actual changes in the body after receiving a vaccine. Vaccines work by fighting the pathogen and then recording it in their memory system.

Allergy is a form of over active immune response mediated by IgE and mast cells. It can also be due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells.

Anaphylaxis is the classical immediate hypersensitivity reaction. It is a sudden, systematic, severe and immediate hypersensitivity reaction occurring as a result of rapid generalized mast-cell degranulation.

Immunodeficiency results from the failure of one or more components of the immune system. Primary immune deficiencies are caused by genetic developmental defects. Secondary immune deficiencies arise due to various reasons like radiation, use of cytolytic and immunosuppressive drugs and infections. AIDS is an acronym for Acquired Immuno- Deficiency Syndrome. It is the deficiency of immune system, acquired during the life time of an individual indicating that it is not a congenital disease.

AIDS is an acronym for Acquired Immuno- Deficiency Syndrome. It is the deficiency of immune system, acquired during the life time of an individual indicating that it is not a congenital disease. AIDS is caused by Human Immuno- Deficiency Virus (HIV). It selectively infects helper T cells. The infected helper T cells will not stimulate antibody production by B-cells resulting in loss of natural defence against viral infection. On the basis of genetic characteristics and differences in the viral antigens, HIV is classified into the types 1 and 2 (HIV-1, HIV-2).

The human immunodeficiency virus belongs to the genus Lentivirus. When observed under the electron microscope, HIV is seen as a spherical virus, 100-120 nm in diameter, containing a dense core surrounded by a lipoprotein envelope. The envelope has glycoprotein (gp) spikes termed gp 41 and gp 120. At the core, there are two large single stranded RNA. Attached to the RNA are molecules of reverse transcriptase. It also contains enzymes like protease and ribonuclease. The core is covered by a capsid made of proteins. This is followed by another layer of matrix proteins.

The HIV is often located within the cells especially in macrophages. HIV can survive for 1.5 days inside a cell but only about 6 hours outside a cell. Routes of HIV transmission include unsafe sexual contact, blood-contaminated needles, organ transplants, blood transfusion and vertical transmission from HIV infected mother to child. HIV is not transmitted by insects or by casual contact.

After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome of the virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This viral DNA gets incorporated into the DNA of host cells and directs the infected cells to produce viral particles.

A simple blood test is available that can determine whether the person has been infected with HIV. The ELISA test (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay) detects the presence of HIV antibodies. It is a preliminary test. Western blot test is more reliable and a confirmatory test. It detects the viral core proteins. If both tests detect the presence of the antibodies, the person is considered to be HIV positive

Immunotherapy also called biological therapy uses substances made by the body or in a laboratory (monoclonal antibodies) to improve or to resist the immune system function. Different approaches have been attempted in the immunotherapy of cancer. Immunotherapy appears to be important in getting rid of the residual malignant cells after the gross tumour has been removed.

Cocaine is a white powder that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant, Erythroxylum coca. It is commonly called coke or crack. Cocaine causes serious physical and psychological problems including hallucinations and paranoia. The other plants with hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladonna and Datur

Signs and symptoms of mental depression:
• Loss of self confidence and self-esteem
• Anxiety
• Not being able to enjoy things that are usually pleasurable or interesting

Alcoholic anonymous was started in 1935 by a businessman and a doctor who had been a “hopeless drunk” for many years. After the men helped each other to stop drinking and to stay sober, they then founded the alcoholic anonymous to help other alcoholics. Since that time alcoholic anonymous has spread throughout the world.

Alcoholism is the inability to control drinking due to physical and emotional dependence on alcohol. Treatment involves counselling by a healthcare professional. Detoxification programme in a hospital or medical facility is an option for those who need additional assistance. Medications are available to reduce the desire to drink and smoke.